Presentation skills

Students are often asked to deliver individual or group presentations as part of their units of study. As with all other assignments, the first thing to do is to check the Unit Outline to examine the presentation task, the criteria to be adopted for assessing the presentation, the length of time allowed for the presentation and any other requirements. Check with your tutor or unit co-ordinator for specific details.

11.1 What is a presentation?

A presentation may be defined as a carefully planned visual and aural event, designed for the purpose of gaining understanding, agreement or action. A survey conducted by Crosling and Ward (2002) identified presentations as one of the most common forms of oral communication expected of business graduates.

For a presentation to reach its objective, three things must happen:

Similar to written assignments, all oral presentations have the same basic framework i.e. an introduction, a body and a conclusion. In delivery, this translates as:

1. tell the audience what you are going to tell them;
2. tell them;
3. tell them what you have just told them.
   

11.2 Planning and preparation

11.2.1 Analysing your audience

Try to empathise with the people in the audience and consider the following: • What are the needs and expectations of the students?

• What are the needs and expectations of the lecturer?

• What do they know already? (for instance, are you merely repeating what has already been said during lectures?)

• What do they need to know in order to understand your presentation?

• What are their likes/dislikes in presentation style, use of technology, format, if any?

11.3 Presentation design

11.3.1 Objective

Just as it is important to make explicit the aim of a written assignment, the speaker must define the purpose of his or her presentation clearly and explicitly and then use a suitable communication framework which supports this aim. For example, in some units the aim may be to persuade the audience to purchase a product or service. In others, the aim may be to inform, i.e. to present the findings of a particular company’s marketing strategy or to present a case study analysis and to link this analysis to management theory.

11.3.2 Content

An important consideration before preparing the content of a presentation is the time you have to present. For example, group presentations may be 30 minutes’ duration, however, each group member might only speak for five or six minutes. In some units there may be a penalty for presentations which go overtime, therefore, it is important that the content fits within the time available. It is also important that you rehearse several times before delivering the final presentation. This will check your timing, further familiarise you with the material, and give you greater confidence in your delivery.

In terms of content, the first step is to decide on the ideas which are most suitable for the presentation, bearing in mind the objective of the presentation and your audience analysis. Each idea should be assessed against your objective and the needs of the audience. The material you use to support these ideas can mean the difference between a dull presentation and one which is engaging and vivid. This material can also make the difference between a presentation that lacks logic and clarity and one which is valid and convincing. Typically, the types of content used to explain, illustrate or quantify your ideas and ultimately strengthen the presentation include: examples, evidence from theory, statistics and testimony. It is also very important that having researched a topic you make sure that appropriate citations are given, either orally or on a slide or handout.

11.3.3 Structure

Having decided upon the aim and the content, the next step is to structure the presentation. No matter how interesting the material is, the effectiveness will be lost if it is carelessly put together. The structure provides the framework for your presentation and should therefore be simple, clear and logical.

Try to break the topic into its component parts with 3 to 5 main ideas. Any more may lead to information overload and you may lose the interest of the audience. These main themes or ideas should also be developed through supporting materials and evidence. Remember to cite your sources, particularly with regard to direct quotations, statistical data, charts, diagrams and so forth.

There are many ways to structure a presentation and some of the more common types of structures include:

Informative presentations

Introduction:

Attention-getting statement/visual Agenda

Body:

1. Main point

Sub-point

• Supporting material Sub-point
• Supporting material

2. Main point

Sub-point

• Supporting material Sub-point
• Supporting material

3. Main point

Sub-point

• Supporting material Sub-point
• Supporting material

Conclusion:

Summary of key arguments Implications

Creative close

The functions of the introduction are to:

• introduce team members (in a group presentation)
• capture the attention of the audience and draw them into the topic (agenda)
• establish rapport with the audience and motivate them to listen
• segue smoothly into the body of the presentation.

The functions of the body are to:

• provide a logical framework which addresses the aim of the presentation
• break the content into understandable parts (usually no more than five)
• develop these main points through appropriate supporting material.

The functions of the conclusion are to:

• summarise the main points
• examine implications (if any)
• end on a positive and engaging note.

Persuasive presentations

There are various persuasive formats that students can adopt in order to persuade the audience to alter its thinking, do something (e.g. buy a product or service) or refrain from doing something (e.g. give up smoking).

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence (Comeaux, 1996) is structured as follows:

Attention
Attention-getting statement/visual (stimulating the audience’s interest through the use of statistics, rhetorical questions, quotations, humour or anecdote. Whatever the choice, it must be relevant to the topic.)

Introductions (in a group presentation)

Agenda

Need
State the problem

Describe and illustrate the need:

• Evidence

Satisfaction
State the solution

• Evidence Demonstrate how it meets need
• Evidence

Visualisation
Benefits of solution

Action
Call the audience to act

The AIDA: Attention-Interest-Desire-Action (Eunson, 2005, p. 418) persuasive structure is as follows:

Attention

Attention-getting statement/visual
Introductions (in a group presentation)
Agenda

Interest
Create interest in and a desire for the product, service or idea Characteristics
Evidence

Desire
Benefits of the product, service or idea based on the audience’s needs and desires

Action
Call the audience to act

• Make the response easy (e.g. give web address or toll free phone number)

The keys to a successful persuasive presentation are knowing:

• what exactly you want the audience to do
• the solution you offer solves the problem (Monroe’s Motivated Sequence)
• the reasons why the audience should accept the persuasive proposition address the audience’s needs and desires
• the reasons why the audience should accept the persuasive proposition are clear
• the reasons why the audience should accept the persuasive proposition are well supported by evidence.

11.4 Visual support

By this time, you have the basic framework of your presentation and the ideas you wish to cover. The next step is to consider the visual and verbal support you need to add credibility to the presentation. Visual and verbal support helps the audience to grasp concepts and ideas. It also helps the speaker to clarify and amplify key points.

As well as Powerpoint slide presentations, visual support could include internet downloads, DVD material, demonstration, or it might include role plays, photographs, illustrations, maps, graphs, diagrams, etc. However, it does not need to be very technical to be effective. Try to experiment! If you use a Powerpoint presentation, there are some basic rules. Each slide should:

• be uncluttered and simple
• be attractive and visually appealing
• use large font
• have five words to a line
• have seven lines to a slide
• use animation and sound effects sparingly.
  

11.4.1 Handouts

Handouts are useful as they reinforce the message by representing the main points of the presentation, as well as additional reading in the form of a reference list. Like any form of visual support, they add interest to a presentation.

Handouts should:

11.5 Delivery

Effective presentations are as much to do with how you say it as what you say.

11.5.1 Methods of delivery

It is important to speak extemporaneously (i.e. free flowing or naturally) when delivering a presentation. Extemporaneous speech is the most effective style of delivery since you will be able to maintain eye contact with the audience and behave in an enthusiastic and sincere fashion. It is unnecessary to write a fully prepared script, although some people prefer to do it this way. If you have to, use cue cards to jog the memory. These should only contain key words or phrases.

11.5.2 Rehearsal

Never tell yourself that it will be “OK on the day”. Try to give yourself adequate time to run through the material a number of times. Your first few practices will help you to add visuals, examples and anecdotes you had not thought about earlier. Later practices will help you to refine the length of sentences and the choice of words and develop appropriate body language. You will also become more comfortable with the visual support.

Always attempt to check the facilities at the site where you will be presenting, allowing sufficient time to re-arrange the room, if necessary, and check the equipment. If time permits, try to have at least one last rehearsal in the venue itself.

11.5.3 Nerve control

Everyone suffers from nerves and everyone is frightened of looking foolish. The important point to remember is that you must welcome and harness your anxiety because you need it to be an effective speaker. It energises you. Without it your performance will be dull and lifeless.

You can control your nerves in several ways:

11.5.4 Your voice

The main delivery instrument in your presentation is your voice, so it is important that you spend time listening to it and improving it where necessary.

• Speak naturally (be yourself)
• Make sure you can be heard
• Enunciate clearly
• Vary the pitch and pace (sometimes pausing is more powerful than speaking)

11.5.5 Non-verbal communication

An audience will interpret your body language. The way you use your body will either reinforce the message, weaken or even contradict it. Be aware of your personal appearance, your posture, facial expressions and gestures.

Audiences are generally impressed with:

You can display these qualities by:

• Standing tall
• Smiling
• Being confident
• Establishing eye contact
• Gesturing appropriately
• Looking as though you are enjoying the experience

Whenever you give a presentation people will want to ask questions, therefore it is prudent to anticipate how you will handle them. It is a good idea to ask that questions be kept until the end of presentation so that they do not disrupt the flow of the presentation. The answers may arise later in the presentation anyway. You should also schedule your questions before your final summation so that you can end on a positive note.

Along with your prepared talk, the questions and answer sessions should also be rehearsed. Ask yourself whether the questions may arise because of lack of clarity, too much information, poor logic or simply because there is no room to include everything!

The main points to remember about question time are:

• Listen carefully – make sure you understand the question
• Rephrase it in your own words
• Answer it concisely
• Where possible refer back to any visuals which may provide the answer
• If a question is long and rambling, highlight only part of it and give a short answer

A few things to avoid:

• Do not be defensive – use open body language and be as pleasant as possible
• Do not lie – if you don't know the answer say so
• Do not enter into an argument with an individual
• Do not rush an answer – pause and think about what you are going to say
  

11.6 Group presentations

Although you will on occasions be asked to present individually, many of the presentation tasks in the faculty are group-based. The basic principles of effective presentation skills with regard to the aim, the structure, visual support and delivery apply. However, attention is focused here on the roles of team members, transitions between individual members’ speeches, and the need to provide team members with effective support and constructive feedback.

11.6.1 Team balance

It is important to make an assessment of your team’s relative strengths and weaknesses with regard to speaking skills. Your stronger speakers should introduce and close the presentation. The speaker who introduces your group should try to capture the attention of the audience, motivate them to listen, establish rapport, preview the main ideas and lead smoothly into the remainder of the presentation. The final speaker needs to be able to capture the essence of the entire presentation. This is achieved by summarising key arguments and ending the presentation with impact. “Thank you” and “Are there any questions?” or “That’s it” are not appropriate ways of concluding! Again, the final speaker should provide the audience with a strong summary of 3 to 5 key points, as well as a creative and memorable close (e.g. quotation, demonstration, etc.). Then he or she should pause briefly and allow for applause prior to inviting questions.

11.6.2 Transitions

Some of the problems which occur in group presentations do so because group members consider their speeches in isolation. Attention needs to be given to the aim of the presentation and how each member’s speech contributes to this purpose. In addition, group members need to “add value” to the work of others in the group. Rather than saying “I’ll now pass you on to Michael”, it is more effective to summarise your own section, then find words which lend weight to the next speaker’s contribution. Something like “I’ve explored five characteristics of effective groups, and now Michael will take this further by examining the important role of leadership within a group context” is a better way to introduce the next member of your group.

11.6.3 Support for the speaker

Support for your group is not only achieved verbally. It is important that your non-verbal communication is also supportive. This means that while a group member is speaking, you should not fiddle with notes, play with pens, or gaze into the distance. Your role is to focus all your attention on what the speaker is saying through your eye contact and the position of your body.

11.6.4 Your role as coach

Even if you feel you are a very good presenter, it is vital that you consider the performance of the group as a whole. A general rule of thumb is that eight hours of rehearsal is required for every hour of presentation. It is during these rehearsals that everyone can provide constructive feedback on the group’s performance. Areas to be reviewed should include clarity of aim, content, structure, visual support, vocal delivery, non-verbal communication, transitions and timing. It is also a time to lend support, encourage risk-taking and coach those in your group.